Global Supply Chain Disruptions: Chief Risk Officers’ Challenges in 2024

Introduction

In an increasingly interconnected world, the global supply chain has become the backbone of modern commerce, enabling the seamless flow of goods and services across borders. However, the past few years have underscored the fragility of this intricate network, as unprecedented disruptions have exposed vulnerabilities and created significant challenges for businesses worldwide. As we move into 2024, Chief Risk Officers (CROs) find themselves at the forefront of navigating these complexities, tasked with ensuring resilience and continuity in the face of ongoing uncertainties.

The COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical tensions, natural disasters, and technological disruptions have all contributed to a volatile supply chain landscape. These events have not only highlighted the critical importance of robust risk management strategies but have also reshaped the role of CROs, who must now anticipate and mitigate a broader spectrum of risks. In this article, we will explore the multifaceted challenges that CROs are expected to encounter in 2024, delving into the evolving nature of global supply chain disruptions and the strategic approaches required to address them effectively.

As we examine the current state of global supply chains, it becomes evident that traditional risk management frameworks are no longer sufficient. CROs must adopt a proactive and dynamic approach, leveraging advanced technologies, fostering collaboration, and enhancing transparency to build more resilient supply chains. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive analysis of the key challenges and emerging trends that will shape the risk landscape for global supply chains in the coming year.

Overview of Global Supply Chain Disruptions

Historical Context

Global supply chain disruptions have been a recurring challenge for businesses and economies worldwide. Historically, these disruptions have been caused by a variety of factors including natural disasters, geopolitical tensions, and economic crises. For instance, the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan severely impacted the automotive and electronics industries, while the 2008 financial crisis led to a significant contraction in global trade. Understanding these historical events is crucial for contextualizing the current landscape of supply chain disruptions.

Recent Trends

In recent years, several trends have exacerbated the frequency and severity of supply chain disruptions. The COVID-19 pandemic is a prime example, causing unprecedented disruptions across multiple industries. Lockdowns, travel restrictions, and labor shortages led to delays and increased costs. Furthermore, the rise of protectionist policies and trade wars, particularly between the United States and China, have introduced new layers of complexity and uncertainty. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change has also played a significant role in disrupting supply chains.

Key Factors Contributing to Disruptions

Geopolitical Instability

Geopolitical instability remains a major factor contributing to global supply chain disruptions. Trade wars, sanctions, and political unrest can lead to sudden and unpredictable changes in trade policies, tariffs, and regulations. These changes can disrupt the flow of goods, increase costs, and create uncertainty for businesses.

Natural Disasters

Natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods can cause significant disruptions to supply chains. These events can damage infrastructure, halt production, and delay transportation. The increasing frequency and severity of these events due to climate change further exacerbate their impact on global supply chains.

Technological Failures

Technological failures, including cyber-attacks and IT system outages, can also disrupt supply chains. Cyber-attacks can compromise sensitive data, disrupt operations, and lead to financial losses. IT system outages can halt production, delay shipments, and create bottlenecks in the supply chain.

Labor Shortages

Labor shortages, whether due to demographic changes, pandemics, or labor strikes, can significantly impact supply chains. A lack of skilled workers can lead to production delays, increased costs, and reduced efficiency. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the vulnerability of supply chains to labor shortages, as many industries faced significant disruptions due to workforce constraints.

Impact on Businesses

The impact of global supply chain disruptions on businesses can be profound. Disruptions can lead to increased costs, reduced revenues, and damaged reputations. Companies may face delays in production and delivery, leading to customer dissatisfaction and lost sales. Additionally, disruptions can create uncertainty and volatility, making it difficult for businesses to plan and forecast effectively.

Mitigation Strategies

To mitigate the impact of supply chain disruptions, businesses can adopt several strategies. Diversifying suppliers and sourcing locations can reduce dependency on a single source and increase resilience. Investing in technology and data analytics can improve visibility and enable proactive management of supply chain risks. Building strong relationships with suppliers and partners can enhance collaboration and improve response times during disruptions. Additionally, developing contingency plans and conducting regular risk assessments can help businesses prepare for and respond to potential disruptions more effectively.

Key Factors Contributing to Supply Chain Disruptions in 2024

Geopolitical Instability

Geopolitical tensions continue to be a significant factor in supply chain disruptions. In 2024, ongoing conflicts, trade wars, and diplomatic standoffs between major economies are expected to create uncertainties. Sanctions, tariffs, and export controls can lead to sudden shortages of critical materials and components, forcing companies to seek alternative suppliers or routes, which may not be as efficient or cost-effective.

Climate Change and Natural Disasters

The increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters, driven by climate change, pose a substantial risk to global supply chains. Extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires can damage infrastructure, disrupt transportation networks, and halt production facilities. These events can lead to significant delays and increased costs as companies scramble to restore operations and find alternative logistics solutions.

Cybersecurity Threats

Cybersecurity threats are becoming more sophisticated and widespread, posing a critical risk to supply chains. Cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, logistics providers, and manufacturing plants can lead to significant disruptions. Ransomware attacks, data breaches, and other cyber incidents can halt production, compromise sensitive information, and disrupt communication channels, leading to delays and financial losses.

Labor Shortages and Strikes

Labor shortages and industrial actions are expected to continue affecting supply chains in The ongoing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, demographic shifts, and changing workforce expectations contribute to labor shortages in key sectors such as transportation, warehousing, and manufacturing. Strikes and labor disputes can further exacerbate these issues, leading to production halts and delays in the delivery of goods.

Regulatory Changes

Regulatory changes and compliance requirements can create significant challenges for supply chains. New environmental regulations, trade policies, and industry standards can necessitate changes in sourcing, production processes, and logistics. Companies must stay abreast of these changes and adapt quickly to remain compliant, which can be resource-intensive and disruptive.

Technological Disruptions

While technology can enhance supply chain efficiency, it can also introduce vulnerabilities. The rapid adoption of new technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT) can lead to integration challenges and system failures. Dependence on technology also increases the risk of disruptions due to technical glitches, software bugs, and hardware malfunctions.

Transportation and Logistics Challenges

Transportation and logistics remain critical components of the supply chain, and any disruptions in these areas can have widespread effects. In 2024, challenges such as port congestion, container shortages, and rising fuel costs are expected to persist. These issues can lead to delays, increased shipping costs, and difficulties in meeting delivery schedules.

Supplier Reliability and Resilience

The reliability and resilience of suppliers are crucial for maintaining smooth supply chain operations. In 2024, companies may face challenges related to supplier bankruptcies, quality issues, and capacity constraints. Diversifying the supplier base and building stronger relationships with key suppliers can help mitigate these risks, but it requires significant effort and resources.

Economic Volatility

Economic volatility, including fluctuations in currency exchange rates, inflation, and changes in consumer demand, can impact supply chains. Economic downturns can lead to reduced consumer spending, affecting demand forecasts and inventory management. Conversely, economic booms can strain supply chains as companies struggle to keep up with increased demand.

Pandemic-Related Disruptions

The lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic continue to influence supply chains. Ongoing health concerns, travel restrictions, and varying vaccination rates across regions can lead to workforce shortages, production delays, and logistical challenges. Companies must remain vigilant and adaptable to navigate these ongoing disruptions effectively.

The Evolving Role of Chief Risk Officers (CROs)

Strategic Leadership and Decision-Making

Chief Risk Officers (CROs) are increasingly becoming integral to strategic leadership within organizations. Traditionally, CROs were primarily focused on compliance and risk mitigation. However, in 2024, their role has expanded to include active participation in strategic decision-making processes. CROs are now expected to provide insights that influence the overall direction of the company, ensuring that risk management is embedded in the strategic planning phase. This shift requires CROs to possess a deep understanding of the business landscape, market trends, and the competitive environment.

Integration of Technology and Data Analytics

The integration of advanced technology and data analytics has transformed the role of CROs. Modern CROs leverage big data, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning to predict and manage risks more effectively. These technologies enable CROs to analyze vast amounts of data in real-time, identify potential risks, and develop proactive strategies to mitigate them. The ability to harness technology for risk management not only enhances the accuracy of risk assessments but also allows for more agile and informed decision-making.

Cross-Functional Collaboration

CROs are now required to work closely with various departments within the organization, fostering a culture of risk awareness and collaboration. This cross-functional approach ensures that risk management is not siloed but is a shared responsibility across the organization. CROs collaborate with finance, operations, IT, and other key departments to identify and address risks that could impact the entire organization. This holistic view of risk management helps in creating a more resilient and adaptive organization.

Focus on Supply Chain Resilience

Given the global supply chain disruptions, CROs are placing a heightened focus on supply chain resilience. They are tasked with identifying vulnerabilities within the supply chain and developing strategies to mitigate potential disruptions. This includes diversifying suppliers, investing in supply chain visibility tools, and creating contingency plans for various scenarios. CROs must ensure that the supply chain is robust enough to withstand unexpected shocks, thereby safeguarding the organization’s operations and reputation.

Regulatory Compliance and Governance

The regulatory landscape is continually evolving, and CROs must stay abreast of new regulations and compliance requirements. They play a critical role in ensuring that the organization adheres to all relevant laws and regulations, thereby avoiding legal and financial penalties. CROs are responsible for implementing robust governance frameworks that promote ethical behavior and compliance across the organization. This involves regular audits, risk assessments, and training programs to keep employees informed about compliance issues.

Crisis Management and Business Continuity

In an era of increasing uncertainty, CROs are also responsible for crisis management and business continuity planning. They must develop and implement comprehensive plans to ensure that the organization can continue to operate during and after a crisis. This includes identifying critical business functions, establishing communication protocols, and conducting regular drills to test the effectiveness of the continuity plans. CROs must be prepared to lead the organization through crises, minimizing disruption and ensuring a swift recovery.

Enhancing Organizational Culture

CROs play a pivotal role in shaping the organizational culture towards risk awareness and proactive management. They are responsible for promoting a culture where risk management is seen as a value-adding activity rather than a compliance requirement. This involves educating employees about the importance of risk management, encouraging open communication about potential risks, and recognizing and rewarding proactive risk management behaviors. By fostering a risk-aware culture, CROs help create an environment where risks are identified and addressed promptly, enhancing the overall resilience of the organization.

Challenges Faced by CROs in Managing Supply Chain Risks

Increasing Complexity of Global Supply Chains

The globalization of supply chains has introduced a level of complexity that is difficult to manage. Chief Risk Officers (CROs) must navigate a web of suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors spread across multiple countries, each with its own regulatory environment, economic conditions, and political climate. This complexity makes it challenging to identify and mitigate risks effectively.

Geopolitical Instability

Geopolitical events such as trade wars, sanctions, and political unrest can disrupt supply chains. CROs must stay informed about global political developments and assess their potential impact on supply chain operations. The unpredictability of these events adds a layer of uncertainty that is hard to manage.

Regulatory Compliance

Different countries have varying regulations concerning labor laws, environmental standards, and trade policies. CROs must ensure that their supply chains comply with these regulations to avoid legal repercussions and financial penalties. Keeping up with changing regulations and ensuring compliance across the entire supply chain is a significant challenge.

Technological Disruptions

The rapid pace of technological advancements can both create opportunities and pose risks. CROs must stay abreast of new technologies that can enhance supply chain efficiency while also being vigilant about cybersecurity threats. The integration of new technologies often requires significant investment and can disrupt existing processes.

Natural Disasters and Climate Change

Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes can severely disrupt supply chains. Climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of these events, making it imperative for CROs to develop robust disaster recovery and business continuity plans. Predicting and preparing for these events is a complex task that requires significant resources.

Supplier Reliability and Quality Control

Ensuring the reliability and quality of suppliers is a constant challenge. CROs must conduct thorough due diligence to assess the financial stability, operational efficiency, and quality control measures of their suppliers. Any lapse in supplier performance can lead to significant disruptions in the supply chain.

Financial Risks

Fluctuations in currency exchange rates, interest rates, and commodity prices can impact the cost and availability of goods. CROs must develop strategies to hedge against these financial risks to maintain supply chain stability. Managing these financial risks requires a deep understanding of global financial markets and sophisticated risk management tools.

Talent Shortage

The demand for skilled professionals in supply chain management is high, but the supply is limited. CROs face the challenge of attracting and retaining talent with the necessary skills to manage complex supply chains. This talent shortage can hinder the effectiveness of risk management strategies.

Data Management and Analytics

The ability to collect, analyze, and act on data is crucial for effective supply chain risk management. CROs must invest in advanced data analytics tools to gain insights into potential risks and make informed decisions. However, managing large volumes of data and ensuring its accuracy and relevance is a significant challenge.

Communication and Coordination

Effective communication and coordination across different departments and stakeholders are essential for managing supply chain risks. CROs must ensure that there is a clear line of communication and that all parties are aligned in their risk management strategies. This requires strong leadership and collaboration skills.

Ethical and Social Responsibility

Consumers and stakeholders are increasingly concerned about the ethical and social practices of companies. CROs must ensure that their supply chains adhere to ethical standards and social responsibility, including fair labor practices and environmental sustainability. Failing to do so can result in reputational damage and loss of consumer trust.

Strategies and Tools for Mitigating Supply Chain Risks

Diversification of Suppliers

Diversifying suppliers is a critical strategy for mitigating supply chain risks. By sourcing materials and products from multiple suppliers across different geographic regions, companies can reduce their dependency on a single source. This approach helps to mitigate risks associated with geopolitical instability, natural disasters, and other localized disruptions. Diversification also fosters competitive pricing and innovation among suppliers, enhancing overall supply chain resilience.

Inventory Management

Effective inventory management is essential for mitigating supply chain risks. Techniques such as Just-In-Time (JIT) inventory, safety stock, and buffer stock can help companies balance the need for efficiency with the necessity of risk mitigation. JIT inventory minimizes excess stock and reduces holding costs, while safety and buffer stocks provide a cushion against unexpected disruptions. Advanced inventory management systems can forecast demand more accurately, ensuring optimal stock levels and reducing the risk of stockouts or overstocking.

Technology and Data Analytics

Leveraging technology and data analytics is crucial for identifying and mitigating supply chain risks. Advanced analytics can provide real-time insights into supply chain performance, enabling companies to detect potential issues before they escalate. Technologies such as Internet of Things (IoT) devices, blockchain, and artificial intelligence (AI) can enhance visibility, traceability, and transparency across the supply chain. Predictive analytics can forecast potential disruptions, allowing companies to take proactive measures to mitigate risks.

Supplier Relationship Management

Building strong relationships with suppliers is a key strategy for mitigating supply chain risks. Effective supplier relationship management (SRM) involves regular communication, collaboration, and performance monitoring. By fostering trust and transparency, companies can work closely with suppliers to address potential issues and develop contingency plans. Long-term partnerships with key suppliers can also lead to better alignment of goals and more resilient supply chains.

Risk Assessment and Monitoring

Continuous risk assessment and monitoring are essential for identifying and mitigating supply chain risks. Companies should conduct regular risk assessments to evaluate potential vulnerabilities and develop mitigation strategies. This involves mapping the entire supply chain, identifying critical nodes, and assessing the impact of potential disruptions. Monitoring tools and dashboards can provide real-time updates on supply chain performance, enabling companies to respond quickly to emerging risks.

Contingency Planning

Developing and maintaining robust contingency plans is vital for mitigating supply chain risks. Contingency plans should outline specific actions to be taken in the event of various disruptions, such as natural disasters, supplier failures, or transportation issues. These plans should be regularly reviewed and updated to reflect changing circumstances and new risks. Training and simulations can help ensure that all stakeholders are prepared to execute contingency plans effectively.

Collaboration and Information Sharing

Collaboration and information sharing among supply chain partners can significantly enhance risk mitigation efforts. By sharing information on potential risks, best practices, and mitigation strategies, companies can collectively improve their resilience. Industry associations, consortiums, and public-private partnerships can facilitate collaboration and information exchange. Collaborative platforms and technologies can also enable real-time communication and coordination among supply chain partners.

Regulatory Compliance and Ethical Practices

Ensuring regulatory compliance and adhering to ethical practices are important for mitigating supply chain risks. Companies must stay informed about relevant regulations and standards, such as environmental, labor, and trade regulations, to avoid legal and reputational risks. Implementing ethical sourcing practices, such as fair labor standards and sustainable sourcing, can also reduce the risk of supply chain disruptions caused by regulatory violations or unethical practices.

Financial Risk Management

Financial risk management is a crucial aspect of mitigating supply chain risks. Companies should implement strategies to manage currency fluctuations, credit risks, and other financial uncertainties. Hedging, insurance, and diversified financial instruments can help protect against financial losses due to supply chain disruptions. Financial risk assessments should be integrated into overall supply chain risk management processes to ensure comprehensive risk mitigation.

Resilience Building

Building resilience into the supply chain is a long-term strategy for mitigating risks. This involves designing supply chains that can adapt to and recover from disruptions quickly. Strategies for building resilience include investing in flexible manufacturing processes, developing alternative transportation routes, and creating modular supply chain networks. Resilient supply chains are better equipped to withstand shocks and continue operating under adverse conditions.

Case Studies: Successful Risk Management in Supply Chains

Toyota: Lean Manufacturing and Just-In-Time (JIT) Strategy

Toyota has long been a pioneer in supply chain risk management through its Lean Manufacturing and Just-In-Time (JIT) strategy. The company’s approach focuses on minimizing waste and ensuring that parts arrive exactly when needed, reducing inventory costs and increasing efficiency.

Key Strategies

• Supplier Diversification: Toyota maintains a diverse supplier base to mitigate the risk of supply disruptions. This ensures that if one supplier faces issues, others can fill the gap.
• Close Supplier Relationships: Toyota fosters strong relationships with its suppliers, often providing them with technical support and sharing best practices to improve their processes.
• Continuous Improvement (Kaizen): The company employs a culture of continuous improvement, encouraging employees at all levels to identify and solve problems proactively.

Outcomes

• Resilience: During the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, Toyota’s diversified supplier network and strong relationships allowed it to recover more quickly than competitors.
• Efficiency: The JIT system has enabled Toyota to maintain lower inventory levels, reducing costs and increasing operational efficiency.

Cisco Systems: Risk Management through Advanced Analytics

Cisco Systems has implemented advanced analytics to manage risks in its global supply chain. By leveraging big data and predictive analytics, Cisco can anticipate potential disruptions and take preemptive actions.

Key Strategies

• Risk Intelligence Platform: Cisco uses a risk intelligence platform that integrates data from various sources, including weather forecasts, geopolitical events, and supplier performance metrics.
• Scenario Planning: The company conducts scenario planning exercises to understand the potential impact of different risk events and develop contingency plans.
• Supplier Risk Scorecards: Cisco evaluates its suppliers using risk scorecards that assess factors such as financial stability, geopolitical risks, and operational performance.

Outcomes

• Proactive Risk Mitigation: Cisco’s ability to predict and respond to potential disruptions has minimized the impact of events such as natural disasters and political instability.
• Improved Supplier Performance: The use of risk scorecards has led to better supplier performance and stronger partnerships, as suppliers are incentivized to improve their risk profiles.

Unilever: Sustainable and Resilient Supply Chain

Unilever has focused on building a sustainable and resilient supply chain to manage risks associated with environmental and social factors. The company’s approach integrates sustainability into its risk management practices.

Key Strategies

• Sustainable Sourcing: Unilever sources raw materials sustainably, ensuring that its supply chain is less vulnerable to environmental risks such as climate change and resource scarcity.
• Supplier Development Programs: The company invests in supplier development programs to improve the capabilities and resilience of its suppliers, particularly in developing countries.
• Transparency and Traceability: Unilever has implemented systems to ensure transparency and traceability in its supply chain, allowing it to quickly identify and address potential issues.

Outcomes

• Reduced Environmental Impact: By sourcing sustainably, Unilever has reduced its environmental footprint and ensured a more stable supply of raw materials.
• Enhanced Reputation: The company’s commitment to sustainability has enhanced its reputation and strengthened relationships with stakeholders, including consumers and investors.
• Resilience to Disruptions: Unilever’s focus on supplier development and transparency has increased the resilience of its supply chain to disruptions.

Apple: Strategic Inventory Management and Supplier Collaboration

Apple’s approach to supply chain risk management includes strategic inventory management and close collaboration with suppliers. The company’s strategies are designed to ensure a steady supply of components and mitigate risks associated with supplier dependency.

Key Strategies

• Buffer Inventory: Apple maintains buffer inventory for critical components to cushion against supply chain disruptions and ensure continuous production.
• Dual Sourcing: The company employs dual sourcing for key components, reducing the risk of dependency on a single supplier.
• Supplier Audits and Compliance: Apple conducts regular audits of its suppliers to ensure compliance with its standards and to identify potential risks early.

Outcomes

• Supply Continuity: The use of buffer inventory and dual sourcing has enabled Apple to maintain supply continuity even during disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Supplier Accountability: Regular audits have improved supplier accountability and performance, reducing the likelihood of supply chain issues.
• Operational Flexibility: Apple’s strategic inventory management provides operational flexibility, allowing the company to respond quickly to changes in demand and supply conditions.

Future Outlook and Recommendations for CROs

Evolving Risk Landscape

Chief Risk Officers (CROs) must anticipate a continuously evolving risk landscape. The global supply chain is becoming increasingly complex, with geopolitical tensions, climate change, and technological advancements introducing new risks. CROs need to stay ahead by continuously monitoring these changes and adapting their risk management strategies accordingly.

Technological Integration

The integration of advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and blockchain can significantly enhance risk management capabilities. CROs should invest in these technologies to improve predictive analytics, enhance transparency, and streamline operations. Leveraging AI and ML can help in identifying potential disruptions before they occur, while blockchain can provide a secure and transparent way to track goods and transactions.

Strengthening Cybersecurity

With the rise of digital transformation, cybersecurity has become a critical concern. CROs must prioritize the implementation of robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive data and ensure the integrity of supply chain operations. This includes regular security audits, employee training, and the adoption of advanced security technologies.

Building Resilient Supply Chains

CROs should focus on building more resilient supply chains that can withstand disruptions. This involves diversifying suppliers, investing in local sourcing, and developing contingency plans. By creating a more flexible and adaptable supply chain, organizations can better manage risks and minimize the impact of disruptions.

Enhancing Collaboration and Communication

Effective collaboration and communication are essential for managing supply chain risks. CROs should foster strong relationships with suppliers, partners, and stakeholders to ensure a coordinated response to disruptions. This includes sharing information, aligning risk management strategies, and working together to develop solutions.

Regulatory Compliance

Staying compliant with evolving regulations is a significant challenge for CROs. They must keep abreast of changes in trade policies, environmental regulations, and industry standards. Implementing a robust compliance management system can help in tracking regulatory changes and ensuring that the organization remains compliant.

Focus on Sustainability

Sustainability is becoming a key consideration in supply chain management. CROs should integrate sustainability into their risk management strategies by adopting environmentally friendly practices, reducing carbon footprints, and ensuring ethical sourcing. This not only mitigates risks but also enhances the organization’s reputation and long-term viability.

Talent Development

Investing in talent development is crucial for effective risk management. CROs should focus on building a skilled and knowledgeable team that can navigate the complexities of the global supply chain. This includes providing ongoing training, fostering a culture of continuous improvement, and encouraging innovation.

Scenario Planning and Stress Testing

Scenario planning and stress testing are essential tools for preparing for potential disruptions. CROs should regularly conduct these exercises to identify vulnerabilities and test the effectiveness of their risk management strategies. This proactive approach enables organizations to respond more effectively to real-world disruptions.

Leveraging Data and Analytics

Data and analytics play a critical role in modern risk management. CROs should leverage data-driven insights to make informed decisions, identify trends, and predict potential risks. Implementing advanced analytics tools can provide a comprehensive view of the supply chain and help in optimizing operations.

Embracing Agility

Agility is key to managing supply chain risks in an uncertain environment. CROs should foster an agile mindset within their organizations, encouraging flexibility and quick decision-making. This involves streamlining processes, reducing bureaucracy, and empowering teams to respond swiftly to changes.

Continuous Improvement

Risk management is an ongoing process that requires continuous improvement. CROs should regularly review and update their risk management strategies, incorporating lessons learned from past disruptions. This iterative approach ensures that the organization remains resilient and prepared for future challenges.

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